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GUEST ARTICLE
An Introduction to Bible
Figures of Speech
Article description: Human beings frequently express
their thoughts by means of figures of speech. This procedure
is likewise a part of biblical revelation. The person who
does not understand the use of figurative language will
not fathom many elements of Bible truth. This article explores
the necessity of understanding some of the figures of speech
employed in sacred scripture.
How dreary human communication
would be were it not for the figures of speech that adorn
language. In fact, it scarcely would be possible to convey
ideas meaningfully if figurative speech were not a part
of our vocabulary.
Adam’s first recorded words
contain some thought figures. Of Eve he said, “This is
now bone of my bones, and flesh of my flesh …” (Genesis
2:23). This delightful creation was much more than mere “flesh” and “bones,” but
on this occasion she was represented by two principal elements
of her physical composition.
Some of the initial words of
the Creator to Adam were of a figurative thrust. To the
first man the Lord warned (with reference to the forbidden
fruit): “… in the day that you eat thereof, you shall surely
die” (Genesis 2:17). That Adam did not literally die the
day of his sin (though the aging process commenced from
the time of his expulsion from Eden) is apparent, for he
ultimately lived to the age of 930 years (Genesis 5:5).
The expression “die” doubtless had a spiritual significance
beyond that of physical degeneration. “Death” also signifies
a religious or moral separation from fellowship with God
(cf. Isaiah 59:1-2; Ephesians 2:1).
One should not be surprised,
therefore, that the Holy Scriptures abound with figures
of speech. This reality does not detract from the value
of divine communication through the Scriptures; rather,
it enhances the power and beauty of God’s Word.
The Bible abounds with a great
variety of figures of speech. In 1899 E.W. Bullinger produced
a massive work of more than 1,100 pages dealing with biblical
figures of speech. Therein he classified some 200 different
figures, many of which were subdivided into different variations,
so that the total number finally catalogued was more than
500 terms (Bullinger, p. ix).
A
Figure Defined
A figure of speech occurs when
a word, phrase, or sentence is employed in a sense other
than the usual or literal sense it has normally.
Sometimes this type of expression is called a “trope.” The
word “trope” derives from Latin and Greek terms that suggest
the idea of a “turning.”
Note, for example, the use
of trope in the Greek text of James 1:17, where
there is a reference to the movement of a shadow, as effected
by the “turning” of the earth, in contrast to the stability
of God. The term “trope” came to be employed of turning
a word from its normal meaning to that of an unusual sense.
Since “trope” is somewhat obsolete these days, we simply
say: “The word was used figuratively.” One writer has expressed
it like this:
“When a word has been appropriated by usage to one thing and is transferred to
another, it is said to be used figuratively. When a word is used in its primitive
or most usual sense, it is said to be literal. A figure, therefore, is a departure
or deflection from the primitive or usual meaning of a word, or the usual manner
of expressing ideas” (Lockhart, p. 156).
The purpose behind the use
of a figurative expression is to intensify the idea being
conveyed. The figure adds force, feeling, and color to
the thought presented. It is a mistake to assume that when
a figure of speech is utilized, the impact of the statement
or argument is somehow weakened; actually, just the reverse
is true. For instance, when God is referred to as the “Rock
of Israel” (2 Samuel 23:3), a wonderful concept of the
security provided by the Lord is emphasized.
The
History of Figurative Language
Every language known to man
is punctuated with the adornment of numerous figures of
speech. The Greeks were so sophisticated in the art of
symbolic language that they gave names to more than 200
forms. Scholars have given several reasons why figurative
language developed and accelerated across the centuries.
First, all languages are growing
entities. There is not always a word to express a specific
idea; accordingly, figures develop so that thoughts may
be conveyed more precisely and dramatically. Thomas Horne
explained it in this fashion:
“Figurative language has its rise in the first ages of mankind: the scarcity
of words occasioned them to be used for various purposes: and thus figurative
terms, which constitute the beauty of language, arose from its poverty; and it
is still the same in all uncivilized nations” (p. 353).
It is impossible to have a
precise word for every idea; accordingly, rather than attempting
to invent a new term for each expression of human thought,
words began to be employed in multiple senses.
Second, the human mind has
been so designed as to appreciate comparisons. Thus, the
use of analogies accommodates the very way we think. It
was but a natural inclination, therefore, that man progressively
concocted language patterns to help describe ideas, and
to strengthen human communication.
When the inspired writer suggested
that the person who meditates continually upon God’s word
is “like a tree planted by streams of water that brings
forth its fruit in its season” (Psalm 1:3), he painted
a word picture (by means of the simile) that is as refreshing
as it is instructive.
The fact is, it is difficult
to convey certain ideas in the sterile atmosphere of pure
literalism. For instance, let one attempt to define meaningfully
the adjective “cold.” One might say—“characterized by a
low temperature.” But does that convey the same impression
as “cold as ice”? We need not mention that old saying, “cold
as a banker’s heart”!
And how does one express the
concept of “hardness” in a practical way unless, perhaps,
he says “hard as rock,” or some other such similar expression? The
Webster’s Concise Family Dictionary cites seventeen
different senses in which the term “hard” may be used,
and most of these are figurative, e.g., “hard cider,” “hard
water,” “hard of hearing,” etc.
Third, in terms of biblical
studies, it must be recognized that many of the great spiritual
truths of scripture (e.g., thoughts relating to God, salvation,
etc.) involve abstract concepts that require more concrete
expressions in order to relate the meanings. Thus, a figure
of speech such as anthropomorphism (“man form”), by which
God is described in physical terms (e.g., arm, hand, eyes,
ears, etc.; see Isaiah 53:1; 59:1; Hebrews 4:13) is helpful
in understanding something of the Lord’s nature, e.g.,
his omniscience, his power, etc.
Similarly, when forgiveness
is described as a “washing” (Acts 22:16), or a “cleansing” (Ephesians
5:26), the imagery is refreshingly vivid, while the basic
meaning is conveyed.
Fourth, it should be remembered
that most of our knowledge is acquired by means of sense
perception, i.e., by what we see, hear, feel, touch, or
taste. Frequently, we think in pictures. It is not at all
surprising, therefore, that graphic images of human languages
should be borrowed from the world about us so as to facilitate
our communication with one another. Hence we say, “soft
as a baby’s skin,” “his voice thundered across the auditorium,” etc.
Can we not appreciate why the adoring husband calls his
wife “honey”?
Bible
Figures
How does this concept apply
to interpreting the figurative language of the Bible? In
his classic work on biblical hermeneutics, Milton Terry
comments regarding this point.
“The principal sources of the figurative language of the Bible are the physical
features of the Holy Land, the habits and customs of its ancient tribes, and
the forms of Israelite worship. All these sources should, accordingly, be closely
studied in order to the interpretation of the figurative portions of the Scriptures” (p.
158).
The truth is, a very strong
case can be made for the fact that the land of Canaan was
selected providentially by God because of its vast range
of flora and fauna. This was due also to its topographical
variations, its differentiated climatic conditions, and
its rich historical background.
It has been said that there
is no spot on earth, from which images could have been
collected, that could accommodate so handily the understanding
of human beings throughout the globe. W.M. Thompson, who
walked the hills and valleys of Palestine for twenty-five
years more than a century ago, wrote these stirring words:
“The land where the Word-made-flesh dwelt with men is, and must ever be, an integral
part of the Divine Revelation. Her testimony is essential to the chain of evidences,
her aid invaluable in exposition. Mournful deserts and moldering ruins rebuke
the pride of man and vindicate the truth of God; and yawning gulfs, from Tophet
to the Sea of Death, in its sepulcher of bitumen and brimstone, warn the wicked,
and prophesy of coming wrath. Even the trees of her forest speak parables, and
rough brambles bear allegories; while little sparrows sing hymns to the happy,
and lilies give lessons to comfort the poor. The very hills and mountains, rocks,
rivers, and fountains, are symbols and pledges of things far better than themselves.
In a word, Palestine is one vast tablet whereupon God’s messages to men have
been drawn, and graven deep in living characters by the Great Publisher of glad
tidings, to be seen and read of all to the end of time” (p. 1).
This delightful paragraph certainly
helps one put into focus the reason why the sacred Scriptures
are packed with almost countless figures of speech, and
why, in the great scheme of revelation, the “Holy land” was
selected to be the depository of these vivid images. As
one of Israel’s foremost archaeologists once wrote:
“Geography, history, and religion are so inextricably bound together in it [the
Bible] that the religious message cannot be truly understood without attention
to the setting and conditions of the revelation” (Wright, p. 5).
An example of the versatility
of the Bible lands, as a depository of figures of speech,
is seen in the great variety of animal life mentioned in
the Scriptures, many of which are used for illustrative
purposes (cf. Matthew 10:16).
For example, there are 16 kinds
of domestic animals, 41 types of wild animals, 55 different
flying creatures, 37 creeping or swarming organisms, and
13 different sorts of aquatic creatures—totaling 162 forms
of animal life (Klotz, pp. 69-99).
In addition, Prof. Philip Johnson,
in calling attention to the 2,300 species of plants that
adorned the Bible lands, observed that “the interest and
love of nature of the ancient people appears on every page.
They lived a life close to nature and their thoughts are
expressed in terms of the living world about them” (p.
1353).
Rather than seeing the investigation
of biblical figures as meaningless exercises in technicalities
of ancient prose and poetry, we must view these colorful
symbols as instructive visual aids. They have been purposefully
tucked away in the pages of scripture for the sake of leading
the Bible student into a deeper understanding of the Mind
of God, and lifting his soul to new heights.
Note: The
foregoing article is the introductory segment of Wayne
Jackson’s latest book, Biblical Figures of Speech—A
Practical Guide to Understanding the Figurative Language
of the Bible. This is a handy book for class study.
There are thirteen chapters with work exercises at the
end of each chapter. For ordering information see: www.courierpublications.com/Merchant2
/merchant.mvc?Screen=PROD&Product_Code=106
Sources
Bullinger, E.W. (1968), Figures of Speech Used in the Bible (Grand Rapids:
Baker).
Horne, Thomas H. (1841), An
Introduction to the Critical Study and Knowledge of the
Holy Scriptures (Philadelphia: Whetham & Son).
Johnson, Phillip (1999), “Plants,” Wycliffe
Bible Dictionary, Charles Pfeiffer, Howard Vos, John
Rea, eds., (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson).
Klotz, John W. (1999), “Animals
of the Bible,” Wycliffe Bible Dictionary, Charles
Pfeiffer, Howard Vos, John Rea, eds., (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson).
Lockhart, Clinton (n.d.), Principles
of Interpretation (Delight, AR: Gospel Light Publishing).
Terry, Milton S. (1890), Biblical
Hermeneutics (New York: Eaton & Mains).
Thompson, W.M. (1863), The
Land and the Book (London: T. Nelson & Sons).
Wright, George & Filson,
Floyd, eds. (1956) The Westminster Historical Atlas
of the Bible (Philadelphia: Westminster).
--Wayne Jackson
© 2006 by Christian Courier
Publications. All rights reserved.
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